The Knowledge Illusion: Why We Think We Know More Than We Actually Do

1. Introduction

Have you ever felt supremely confident explaining how something works, only to stumble when pressed for details? Perhaps you confidently voiced an opinion on a complex issue, only to realize you couldn't quite articulate the underlying mechanisms? This common experience points to a fascinating quirk of human cognition known as the Knowledge Illusion. We navigate the world with a sense of understanding that often far outstrips our actual individual grasp. It's as if we believe we possess a vast library of knowledge within our own minds, when in reality, we're often just borrowing from the communal library of society.

In our increasingly interconnected and information-rich world, the Knowledge Illusion is more relevant than ever. From making informed decisions about our health and finances to navigating the complexities of social and political landscapes, our perceived knowledge shapes our actions and beliefs. Understanding this mental model is crucial because it highlights the gap between what we think we know and what we actually know. This gap can lead to overconfidence, poor judgments, and a susceptibility to misinformation. Recognizing the Knowledge Illusion empowers us to become more critical thinkers, better communicators, and more effective learners.

Simply put, the Knowledge Illusion is the cognitive bias where we overestimate our understanding of how things work, often mistaking our access to information and the expertise of others for our own individual comprehension. It's the feeling of knowing, even when our actual detailed understanding is surprisingly shallow. Think of it like believing you understand how a bicycle works because you ride one, without actually being able to explain the mechanics of its gears and brakes in detail. This mental model reveals a fundamental truth about human cognition: we often live in a world of assumed knowledge, comfortably relying on the expertise distributed around us.

2. Historical Background

The concept of the Knowledge Illusion, or closely related ideas, has roots in cognitive science and psychology spanning several decades. While not always explicitly termed "Knowledge Illusion," the underlying principles have been explored through various research threads. The most direct lineage leads to the work of Steven Sloman and Philip Fernbach, cognitive scientists who have significantly popularized and formalized this mental model.

Sloman and Fernbach's research, particularly highlighted in their book "The Knowledge Illusion: Why We Never Think Alone," has been instrumental in bringing this concept to the forefront of public and academic awareness. They didn't invent the idea of limited individual knowledge, but they meticulously investigated and articulated the specific nature of this illusion – the feeling of deep understanding that dissolves when we are asked to explain in detail. Their work builds upon earlier research into metacognition, expertise, and distributed cognition.

The foundation can be traced back to studies on metacognition, our awareness and understanding of our own thought processes. Researchers in metacognition have long explored how people assess their own knowledge and abilities, often revealing inaccuracies and overconfidence. The Dunning-Kruger Effect, for instance, highlights how incompetent individuals tend to overestimate their competence, which is a related, though distinct, phenomenon.

Furthermore, the idea of distributed cognition, which emphasizes that knowledge isn't solely contained within individual minds but is distributed across individuals, artifacts, and the environment, also laid groundwork for understanding the Knowledge Illusion. This perspective acknowledges that we function within a "community of knowledge," where we rely on the expertise and understanding of others to navigate the world.

Sloman and Fernbach's contribution was to specifically pinpoint the illusion aspect. They demonstrated through experiments that people often believe they understand complex systems and concepts much better than they actually do. A classic example they use is asking people to rate their understanding of how a toilet works. Most people initially rate their understanding as quite high. However, when asked to explain the mechanism step-by-step, their confidence plummets, and they realize the depth of their actual knowledge is surprisingly shallow. This "explanation task" is a key tool they used to reveal the illusion of explanatory depth, a core component of the Knowledge Illusion.

Over time, the model has evolved from a somewhat niche academic concept to a widely recognized and discussed cognitive bias. The accessibility of Sloman and Fernbach's book and their clear articulation of the ideas have contributed to its broader adoption in fields like business, education, and public policy. The ongoing proliferation of information and the increasing complexity of modern systems have only amplified the relevance and importance of understanding the Knowledge Illusion. It's no longer just an academic curiosity but a crucial lens through which to understand human judgment and decision-making in the 21st century.

3. Core Concepts Analysis

At the heart of the Knowledge Illusion lies the distinction between individual knowledge and community knowledge. We, as individuals, possess a relatively limited amount of detailed knowledge about most things. However, we live in societies where knowledge is distributed across a vast network of individuals, tools, and resources. The illusion arises because we often conflate our access to this community knowledge with our own personal understanding.

Think of your brain as the CEO of a large corporation. The CEO doesn't need to know every minute detail of every department's operation. Instead, the CEO knows who to ask, where to find information, and how to leverage the expertise within the organization. Similarly, our brains are adept at navigating the "community of knowledge." We know where to look things up online, who to ask for help, and we generally function effectively within this distributed knowledge system. The illusion occurs when we mistake this ability to access and utilize community knowledge for a deep, personal understanding.

Key Components of the Knowledge Illusion:

• Illusion of Explanatory Depth: This is the core phenomenon. We believe we understand how things work at a deeper level than we actually do. This is particularly evident when we are asked to explain something in detail, step-by-step. The act of explaining forces us to confront the gaps in our understanding, shattering the illusion of depth. It’s like thinking you know how to bake a cake because you’ve eaten many cakes, but then realizing you have no idea about the specific ingredients, ratios, and baking processes.

• Reliance on External Knowledge: We are fundamentally social creatures who rely heavily on the knowledge of others. From the moment we are born, we are learning from parents, teachers, friends, and the vast accumulated knowledge of human civilization. This reliance is essential for our survival and progress. However, it also sets the stage for the Knowledge Illusion. We become so accustomed to accessing external knowledge that we blur the lines between what we know and what others know and make available to us.

• The "Community of Knowledge": This concept emphasizes that knowledge is not solely an individual possession but a collective resource. Society functions because of the specialization of knowledge. Doctors know medicine, engineers know engineering, and plumbers know plumbing. We all benefit from this division of labor and the interconnected web of expertise. The Knowledge Illusion is in part a consequence of this very efficient system; we can operate effectively in a world we don't fully understand because we can always access the knowledge we need from the community.

• Fluency and Familiarity: We often mistake familiarity with a concept or technology for genuine understanding. Just because we use a smartphone every day doesn't mean we understand how it works internally. We become fluent in using the interface and accessing its functions, creating a sense of competence that can be misleading. This fluency contributes to the feeling that we "know" more than we actually do about the underlying mechanisms.

Examples Illustrating the Knowledge Illusion:

1. How a Zipper Works: Imagine someone asks you to explain, in detail, how a zipper functions. You use zippers daily, so you might initially feel confident. However, when you try to articulate the precise mechanics – the interlocking teeth, the slider, the wedge – you might find yourself struggling. You realize you know how to use a zipper, but your understanding of how it works is surprisingly superficial. This simple example perfectly demonstrates the illusion of explanatory depth in action.

2. Political Opinions: Consider a complex political issue like healthcare reform. Many people hold strong opinions on this topic. However, if you ask someone to explain the intricacies of different healthcare systems, the economic models behind them, or the specific policy mechanisms being proposed, you might find their detailed understanding is limited. They may have strong feelings and broad talking points, but lack a deep, nuanced comprehension of the issue. The Knowledge Illusion can lead to strong opinions based on shallow understanding, making constructive dialogue and informed decision-making challenging.

3. Artificial Intelligence: AI is a rapidly evolving field that many people talk about and use in various forms (e.g., chatbots, recommendation algorithms). You might feel you "understand" AI because you interact with it daily. However, if asked to explain how a neural network learns, how machine learning algorithms are trained, or the ethical implications of AI development, you might quickly realize the limits of your understanding. The hype and widespread use of AI can create a false sense of knowledge, obscuring the complexity and the need for deeper learning.

These examples, from everyday objects to complex societal issues, highlight how pervasive the Knowledge Illusion is. It's not about being unintelligent; it's a fundamental aspect of how our minds work, leveraging the vast resources of the community of knowledge to navigate a complex world. Recognizing this illusion is the first step towards more accurate self-assessment and a more humble approach to knowledge and learning.

4. Practical Applications

Understanding the Knowledge Illusion isn't just an academic exercise; it has profound practical implications across various domains of life. By recognizing this mental model, we can improve our decision-making, communication, and learning processes. Here are five specific application cases:

1. Business Strategy and Innovation: In the business world, the Knowledge Illusion can lead to flawed strategic decisions. Leaders might overestimate their understanding of market dynamics, customer needs, or technological disruptions. For example, a company might launch a new product based on the assumption that they deeply understand customer preferences, only to find the product fails in the market. By being aware of the Knowledge Illusion, businesses can cultivate a culture of intellectual humility. This involves actively seeking diverse perspectives, conducting thorough research, and rigorously testing assumptions before making major strategic moves. Encouraging teams to "explain it like I'm five" can help expose hidden assumptions and knowledge gaps within the organization, leading to more robust and innovative strategies.

2. Personal Finance and Investment: The world of personal finance is rife with opportunities for the Knowledge Illusion to lead to costly mistakes. Individuals might believe they understand investment strategies, market trends, or financial products better than they actually do. This can lead to risky investments, poor financial planning, and vulnerability to scams. Recognizing the illusion encourages a more cautious and informed approach. Before making significant financial decisions, individuals should actively seek out objective information, consult with qualified financial advisors, and rigorously question their own understanding. Instead of relying on gut feelings or simplified narratives, taking the time to truly understand the complexities of financial instruments can protect against costly errors and lead to better long-term financial outcomes.

3. Education and Learning: In education, both students and educators can fall prey to the Knowledge Illusion. Students might believe they understand a concept after a superficial reading or lecture, only to realize their understanding is shallow when faced with application or problem-solving tasks. Educators, similarly, might overestimate the depth of their students' understanding based on classroom participation or seemingly correct answers. To combat this, educators can employ active learning techniques that force students to articulate their understanding and confront their knowledge gaps. Methods like the "Feynman Technique" (explaining a concept in simple terms) or collaborative learning exercises can help students and teachers alike identify and address the Knowledge Illusion, leading to deeper and more meaningful learning.

4. Technology Design and User Experience (UX): Technology developers and UX designers can easily fall into the trap of the Knowledge Illusion when designing products. They might assume users understand interfaces, features, or instructions based on their own expert knowledge. This can lead to poorly designed products that are confusing, frustrating, and ultimately unsuccessful. Acknowledging the Knowledge Illusion in UX design means prioritizing user testing and feedback at every stage of development. Designers should actively seek to understand how actual users, not just themselves or fellow experts, perceive and interact with the technology. Simplifying interfaces, providing clear and concise instructions, and conducting usability testing with diverse user groups are crucial steps in overcoming the Knowledge Illusion and creating user-friendly and effective technologies.

5. Civic Engagement and Political Discourse: In the realm of civic engagement and political discourse, the Knowledge Illusion can have significant societal consequences. Citizens might hold strong political opinions on complex issues (climate change, economic policy, social justice) based on limited or biased information, believing they possess a comprehensive understanding. This can lead to polarized debates, resistance to evidence-based policies, and susceptibility to misinformation and propaganda. Combating the Knowledge Illusion in this domain requires promoting critical thinking skills, encouraging intellectual humility in public discourse, and fostering a culture of evidence-based reasoning. Media literacy initiatives, fact-checking organizations, and platforms that encourage respectful dialogue and nuanced understanding are essential tools for mitigating the negative effects of the Knowledge Illusion on civic life.

In each of these applications, the key takeaway is that recognizing the Knowledge Illusion is not about self-deprecation but about intellectual honesty and continuous improvement. It's about acknowledging the limits of our individual knowledge and actively seeking to expand our understanding by engaging with diverse perspectives, rigorously testing our assumptions, and embracing a mindset of lifelong learning.

5. Comparison with Related Mental Models

The Knowledge Illusion is a powerful mental model, but it's not the only cognitive bias that affects our understanding and judgment. It's helpful to distinguish it from related models to understand its unique contribution and when it's most applicable. Let's compare it to two related mental models: the Dunning-Kruger Effect and Confirmation Bias.

Knowledge Illusion vs. Dunning-Kruger Effect:

Both models deal with misperceptions of competence and knowledge, but they highlight different aspects. The Dunning-Kruger Effect focuses specifically on the relationship between competence and confidence. It describes how incompetent individuals tend to overestimate their abilities, while highly competent individuals may slightly underestimate theirs. The Knowledge Illusion, on the other hand, focuses on the illusion of depth of understanding, regardless of actual competence level. Even highly intelligent and knowledgeable people can fall prey to the Knowledge Illusion.

The Dunning-Kruger Effect emphasizes the incompetent person's inflated self-assessment due to a lack of metacognitive skills to recognize their own incompetence. The Knowledge Illusion emphasizes the feeling of understanding that we all experience, often stemming from our reliance on community knowledge. While someone experiencing the Dunning-Kruger Effect might genuinely believe they are highly knowledgeable in a domain, someone experiencing the Knowledge Illusion might feel like they understand something, but quickly realize the shallowness of their understanding when pressed for detailed explanations.

Similarity: Both models highlight inaccuracies in self-assessment and can lead to overconfidence and poor decision-making. Difference: Dunning-Kruger focuses on the incompetent and their inflated self-view; Knowledge Illusion focuses on the universal feeling of understanding being deeper than it is, even for competent individuals.

When to choose: Use the Dunning-Kruger Effect when analyzing situations where incompetence leads to overconfidence and poor performance. Use the Knowledge Illusion when examining the general tendency to overestimate our depth of understanding, even when we are competent in a domain.

Knowledge Illusion vs. Confirmation Bias:

Confirmation Bias is the tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs and to disregard information that contradicts them. While distinct from the Knowledge Illusion, they can interact and reinforce each other.

Confirmation Bias explains how we process information to maintain our existing beliefs. The Knowledge Illusion explains why we might be overly confident in those beliefs in the first place. If we suffer from the Knowledge Illusion, we might believe we deeply understand a topic, making us more prone to Confirmation Bias. We might selectively seek out information that confirms our (potentially shallow) understanding, further reinforcing our overconfidence and hindering our ability to learn and revise our views.

For example, someone with a shallow understanding of a political issue (Knowledge Illusion) might be more susceptible to Confirmation Bias, only reading news sources that align with their pre-existing opinions, thus deepening their convictions without actually increasing their depth of knowledge.

Similarity: Both models can contribute to flawed reasoning and resistance to changing one's mind. Difference: Confirmation Bias is about selectively processing information; Knowledge Illusion is about overestimating the depth of one's existing understanding.

When to choose: Use Confirmation Bias when analyzing how individuals selectively process information to support their existing beliefs. Use the Knowledge Illusion when examining the overestimation of understanding, which can then exacerbate Confirmation Bias.

In essence, these mental models are not mutually exclusive but rather complementary lenses through which to understand human cognition. Recognizing the Knowledge Illusion can make us more aware of our potential for overconfidence and more receptive to seeking out diverse information, potentially mitigating the effects of both the Dunning-Kruger Effect and Confirmation Bias. Understanding these distinctions allows for a more nuanced and effective application of mental models in various situations.

6. Critical Thinking

While the Knowledge Illusion provides valuable insights into human cognition, it's crucial to approach it with critical thinking and be aware of its limitations and potential misuses. Like any mental model, it's a simplification of reality and should be applied thoughtfully.

Limitations and Drawbacks:

• Oversimplification: The Knowledge Illusion model can sometimes oversimplify the complexities of knowledge and understanding. "Knowledge" itself is a multifaceted concept, encompassing different types of knowledge (declarative, procedural, etc.) and levels of understanding. The model primarily focuses on explanatory depth, which, while important, is not the only dimension of knowledge. It's important to remember that feeling like you understand less than you thought isn't necessarily a bad thing; it can be a sign of growing intellectual humility and a more nuanced understanding of the complexities involved.

• Cultural Variations: The extent to which the Knowledge Illusion manifests might vary across cultures. Cultures that emphasize individual knowledge and expertise might experience the illusion differently than cultures that prioritize collective knowledge and interdependence. Further research is needed to explore cultural nuances in the perception and experience of the Knowledge Illusion.

• Context Dependence: The illusion's strength can be context-dependent. In situations where detailed explanation is explicitly required (like in Sloman and Fernbach's experiments), the illusion is more readily revealed. In everyday life, where we often rely on implicit knowledge and quick heuristics, the illusion might be less apparent, yet still subtly influencing our judgments and decisions.

Potential Misuse Cases:

• Weaponizing Humility: The concept of the Knowledge Illusion could be misused to dismiss or downplay genuine expertise. Someone might use it to argue that "no one really understands anything," undermining the value of specialized knowledge and expertise. It's important to remember that recognizing the Knowledge Illusion is not about devaluing knowledge but about fostering intellectual humility and continuous learning.

• Overconfidence in Systems: Ironically, understanding the Knowledge Illusion might lead to overconfidence in systems and processes designed to mitigate it (e.g., expert systems, AI decision-making tools). We might assume that because we are aware of the illusion, we can completely overcome it by relying on external tools. However, even well-designed systems are not foolproof and require human oversight and critical evaluation. The Knowledge Illusion reminds us to be humble not just about our individual knowledge, but also about the limitations of our tools and systems.

Avoiding Common Misconceptions:

• It's not about being "stupid": The Knowledge Illusion is a universal cognitive phenomenon, not a measure of intelligence. Everyone experiences it to some extent. Recognizing it is a sign of intellectual maturity, not intellectual deficiency.

• It's not about knowing nothing: We do possess genuine knowledge and expertise in various domains. The illusion is about the depth of our understanding often being less than we perceive, not about a complete lack of knowledge.

• It's not a reason for inaction: Understanding the Knowledge Illusion should not lead to paralysis or inaction. Instead, it should encourage more informed and thoughtful action, grounded in a realistic assessment of our knowledge and the need for continuous learning.

Advice on Responsible Application:

When applying the Knowledge Illusion model, remember to:

• Use it for self-reflection, not for judging others: Focus on understanding your own potential for overconfidence and knowledge gaps, rather than using it to criticize or dismiss others' opinions.

• Combine it with other mental models: Integrate the Knowledge Illusion with other cognitive models like First Principles Thinking and Systems Thinking for a more comprehensive understanding of complex situations.

• Emphasize continuous learning: View the Knowledge Illusion as a motivation for lifelong learning and intellectual curiosity. Embrace opportunities to deepen your understanding and challenge your assumptions.

By being mindful of these limitations and potential misuses, we can leverage the Knowledge Illusion as a powerful tool for self-improvement, critical thinking, and more effective decision-making, without falling into the trap of oversimplification or misapplication.

7. Practical Guide: Overcoming the Knowledge Illusion

Turning the abstract understanding of the Knowledge Illusion into practical action is key to reaping its benefits. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you start applying this mental model in your daily life:

Step-by-Step Operational Guide:

1. Identify Areas of Assumed Knowledge: Start by reflecting on areas where you feel confident in your understanding. These could be topics you frequently discuss, skills you regularly use, or opinions you hold strongly. Make a list of these areas. For example: "How social media algorithms work," "My investment strategy," "The causes of climate change," "How my car engine functions."

2. Challenge Your Explanatory Depth: For each area on your list, pick one and ask yourself: "How well can I really explain this?" Imagine you have to explain it to someone with no prior knowledge – a child, or someone from a completely different background. Try to articulate the underlying mechanisms, processes, and key components in simple, step-by-step language.

3. Seek Explanations (The "Explanation Task"): Actively try to explain the chosen topic in detail, either verbally to someone else or in writing. This is the crucial "explanation task" that reveals the Knowledge Illusion. As you explain, you will likely encounter gaps in your understanding, points where you realize you're relying on vague concepts or assumptions. Don't be discouraged; this is the process of uncovering the illusion.

4. Identify Knowledge Gaps: As you struggle to explain, consciously note down the specific points where your understanding falters. These are your knowledge gaps. Be precise: instead of just saying "I don't understand algorithms," identify specific aspects you're unclear about, like "How does the algorithm decide what to show me first?" or "What data points does it use to personalize recommendations?"

5. Seek Diverse Information Sources: Once you've identified your knowledge gaps, actively seek out reliable sources to fill them. Don't just rely on the first explanation you find. Consult multiple sources – books, articles, videos, expert interviews – and compare different perspectives. Be critical of the information you encounter and look for evidence-based explanations.

6. Test Your Understanding (Again): After researching and filling your knowledge gaps, return to the "explanation task." Try to explain the topic again, incorporating the new information you've learned. You should find that your explanation is now more detailed, coherent, and nuanced. This process of explaining, identifying gaps, learning, and re-explaining is an iterative cycle of deepening your understanding and overcoming the Knowledge Illusion.

7. Embrace Intellectual Humility: The process of confronting the Knowledge Illusion can be humbling. It reveals that we often know less than we think we do. Embrace this humility. Recognize that intellectual humility is not a weakness but a strength. It opens you up to continuous learning, encourages you to seek diverse perspectives, and makes you a more effective communicator and decision-maker.

Simple Thinking Exercise/Worksheet:

Title: Unmasking Your Knowledge Illusion

Instructions:

1. Choose a Topic: Select a topic you feel you understand reasonably well (e.g., "How democracy works," "The benefits of exercise," "How a smartphone camera works").

2. Initial Confidence Rating: On a scale of 1 to 10 (1 being "no understanding" and 10 being "expert understanding"), rate your initial confidence in your ability to explain this topic in detail. Rating: ____ / 10

3. Explain It (Step-by-Step): Write down a step-by-step explanation of how the topic works. Imagine you are explaining it to someone who knows nothing about it. Be as detailed and clear as possible. (Use extra paper if needed)

4. Identify Knowledge Gaps: Review your explanation. Where did you struggle? Where are you relying on assumptions or vague terms? List at least 3 specific knowledge gaps you identified during the explanation process.

   • Gap 1: ____________________________________________________
   • Gap 2: ____________________________________________________
   • Gap 3: ____________________________________________________

5. Revised Confidence Rating: After attempting to explain and identifying knowledge gaps, re-rate your confidence in your detailed understanding of the topic. Rating: ____ / 10

6. Reflect: How did your confidence rating change? What did you learn about your own understanding of the topic? How can you address the identified knowledge gaps?

This exercise, though simple, can be a powerful starting point for recognizing and overcoming the Knowledge Illusion. By consistently applying these steps and embracing a mindset of intellectual humility, you can move from a superficial feeling of knowing to a deeper, more robust, and more valuable understanding of the world around you.

8. Conclusion

The Knowledge Illusion is a fundamental cognitive bias that shapes how we perceive our understanding of the world. It reveals the crucial distinction between our individual knowledge and the vast, distributed knowledge of the community we inhabit. By overestimating our personal depth of understanding, we become susceptible to overconfidence, flawed decision-making, and a resistance to learning and revising our beliefs.

Understanding this mental model is not about diminishing the value of knowledge or expertise; quite the opposite. It’s about fostering intellectual humility, promoting continuous learning, and encouraging a more nuanced and critical approach to information and decision-making. In an increasingly complex and interconnected world, recognizing the Knowledge Illusion is more vital than ever. It equips us to be more effective communicators, more informed citizens, and more successful learners.

By actively challenging our explanatory depth, seeking diverse perspectives, and embracing intellectual humility, we can move beyond the illusion of knowledge and cultivate genuine understanding. The Knowledge Illusion, once recognized, becomes a powerful tool for self-improvement and a catalyst for lifelong learning. Embrace this mental model, integrate it into your thinking processes, and you will unlock a more realistic, and ultimately more empowering, perspective on your own knowledge and the world around you.

---

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) about the Knowledge Illusion

Q1: Is the Knowledge Illusion always a bad thing? A: Not necessarily. In many everyday situations, relying on the "community of knowledge" and operating with a degree of assumed understanding is efficient and functional. The Knowledge Illusion only becomes problematic when it leads to overconfidence in situations requiring deep understanding or when it hinders our ability to learn and adapt.

Q2: How is the Knowledge Illusion different from simple ignorance? A: Ignorance is simply a lack of knowledge. The Knowledge Illusion is more subtle; it's the feeling of understanding, even when our actual detailed understanding is lacking. We are often unaware of our ignorance until the illusion is exposed.

Q3: Can we completely eliminate the Knowledge Illusion? A: Probably not entirely. It's a fundamental aspect of how our brains work, leveraging distributed knowledge. However, we can significantly mitigate its negative effects by cultivating intellectual humility, practicing the "explanation task," and actively seeking to deepen our understanding.

Q4: Is the Knowledge Illusion more prevalent in certain cultures or demographics? A: Research is ongoing, but cultural factors likely play a role. Cultures that emphasize individual expertise might experience it differently than those emphasizing collective knowledge. Further research is needed to understand demographic variations.

Q5: How can I test myself for the Knowledge Illusion in everyday life? A: The best way is to regularly practice the "explanation task." When you feel confident about understanding something, try to explain it in detail to someone else or write it out. This process will often reveal the gaps in your understanding and help you become more aware of the illusion in real-time.

---

Resources for Deeper Understanding:

• Book: "The Knowledge Illusion: Why We Never Think Alone" by Steven Sloman and Philip Fernbach
• Articles and Interviews: Search for articles and interviews with Steven Sloman and Philip Fernbach online to find accessible summaries and further insights into their research.
• Cognitive Science Journals: Explore academic journals in cognitive science and psychology for more in-depth research articles on the Knowledge Illusion and related concepts.

---

Think better with AI + Mental Models – Try AIFlow